Long before the internet, the printing press, or even parchment, humans were already trying to record their knowledge, stories, and laws. Sometimes on stone, sometimes on clay, sometimes on papyrus.
But what is the oldest ‘book’ in the world? That question is not easy to answer, as much depends on the definition: does a clay tablet count as a book? Or only a bound codex with a cover? Still, there are works that undoubtedly rank among the oldest written documents we can (at least partially) still read.
Here are 10 of the oldest known books in the world — and the stories behind them.
1. The Epic of Gilgamesh (ca. 2100 BCE)
- Origin: Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq)
- Language: Akkadian in cuneiform script
Often considered the oldest literary work in the world. The story of King Gilgamesh and his quest for immortality was recorded on clay tablets. Themes such as friendship, loss, and the fear of death still resonate today.
2. Pyramid Texts (ca. 2400–2300 BCE)
- Origin: Egypt
- Language: Old Egyptian
These religious inscriptions, carved into the walls of the pyramids of Djoser, Unas, and other pharaohs, contain spells and hymns intended to protect the king in the afterlife. Technically not scrolls, but undeniably the oldest religious texts known.
3. Egyptian Book of the Dead (ca. 1550 BCE)
- Origin: Egypt
- Language: Old Egyptian (hieroglyphs on papyrus)
A collection of spells and rituals placed in tombs to guide the deceased through the realm of the dead. Written on papyrus scrolls, these texts are often richly illustrated and provide deep insight into Egyptian beliefs about life and death.
4. Prisse Papyrus (ca. 1800 BCE)
- Origin: Egypt
- Language: Middle Egyptian
The oldest preserved papyrus scroll in the world, containing the ‘Maxims of Ptahhotep’ — wisdom literature on virtue, etiquette, and leadership. It is an early form of didactic writing.
5. Rigveda (oral ca. 1500–1200 BCE, written from ca. 1000 BCE)
- Origin: India
- Language: Vedic Sanskrit
The oldest of the Vedas and one of the oldest preserved religious texts in the world. Originally transmitted orally around 1500–1200 BCE, it was first committed to writing on palm leaves from about 1000 BCE. Contains hymns, philosophies, and ritual instructions still studied today.
6. Enuma Elish (core from ca. 12th–11th century BCE; copies from 7th–6th century BCE)
- Origin: Babylonia
- Language: Akkadian
The Babylonian creation myth, preserved on clay tablets. The oldest versions likely date from the 2nd millennium BCE, though the most complete copies are from the 7th–6th century BCE. A key text in the religious traditions of the ancient Mediterranean.
7. Diamond Sutra (868 CE)
- Origin: China (Dunhuang)
- Language: Classical Chinese
The oldest precisely dated printed book, created using woodblock printing. Printed in 868 CE and discovered in a cave near Dunhuang. A milestone in the global history of printing.
8. Codex Sinaiticus (ca. 330–360 CE)
- Origin: Egypt (Sinai)
- Language: Greek
One of the oldest and most complete codex-form manuscripts of the Christian Bible. Written on parchment, containing both Old and New Testament texts. Rediscovered only in the 19th century in a monastery in Sinai.
9. Codex Gigas (13th century CE)
- Origin: Bohemia (now Czech Republic)
- Language: Latin
Nicknamed ‘The Devil’s Bible’ because of a massive illustration of the devil. This 75 kg behemoth contains the complete Latin Bible, medical texts, chronicles, and magical formulas. According to legend, it was completed in one night with the devil’s help.
10. Dead Sea Scrolls (ca. 150 BCE – 70 CE)
- Origin: Israel (Qumran)
- Language: Hebrew, Aramaic
A collection of about 900 manuscripts, including Biblical books, apocryphal writings, and sectarian rules. The scrolls, preserved in caves near the Dead Sea, date from around 150 BCE to 70 CE. Essential for the study of early Judaism and the Bible.
